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DownloadOUR PERFUME 2000 MAGAZINE ARTICLES
All have been written by David Cookson & Pia Henzi for Perfume 2000 Magazine. We hope you enjoy them!
4. Rosewood oil - Summer/Fall 1999
5. Cedarwood oil - Fall/Winter 1999
6. Amyris oil - Spring/Summer 2000 (to be published)
Perfume2000
Spring/Summer, 2000
Amyris oil
The Poor Mans Sandalwood
Amyris oil, also known as West Indian Sandalwood oil is steam distilled from the wood of the Amyris Balsamifera, locally know as "bois chandelle" (candle wood). This wood was reportedly once distilled in the Dominican republic as well as Jamaica and Venezuela. However, it is currently produced and exported from only a handful of Haitian distillers. There is also now some ongoing production in the US of Southeast Haitian raw materials.
From Guenther we have obtained the specifications of the Haitian distilled oil:
SG at 15 deg C: 0.959-0.974
OR +30 to +42
RI at 20 deg C: 1.5050 to 1.5070
Solubility at 20 deg C: Soluble in 1 to 3 vol. of 80% alcohol.
**
It is important to note that despite the oils secondary name, true Amyris wood bears no relation to the Sandalwood tree and the oil that we are familiar with from India and Indonesia Santalum Album. In 1886 Kirby and Holmes detected the botanical origin of Amyris wood oil and it's difference from Sandalwood through microscopic examination of the leaves. Amyris wood was finally classified as Amyris Balsamifera L. by Urban.
Haitian Amyris oil exports have seen a steady decline over the last ten years. From one of main exporters over the last 30 years, we have learned that the market for Amyris oil was approx. 120+ drums per annum. With the material shortage in 1992, skyrocketing prices and the following Embargo, it was only a matter of time before a synthetic alternative was put on the market. Owing to these unfortunate events, once the Embargo was lifted, the exports had fallen (for this exporter) to less than 40 drums per year - not quite enough to keep the distilleries running for only 5 months!
Strangely enough, pricing for Amyris oil is only lightly higher today than it was 8-10 years ago.
Amyris' main usage remains much the same as it did year ago; as an inexpensive perfume fixative in soaps and low priced perfumes. It blends well with Lavandin, Citronella, Oakmoss and other woody oils. It has only a limited role in Aromatherapy, but according to some suppliers, it has recently become more popular as a room or mood fragrance. It is still clearly a much cheaper alternative to genuine Sandalwood. It is however noted that olfactorily and therapeutically, Amyris is not a true replacement for Sandalwood - however, as your formula costs are red-lining with the current price for true Sandalwood - perhaps a glance in this direction is worthwhile.
Overall, Amyris may not be the most glamorous or interesting essential oil, but it does have a role to play in household fragrance and some perfumery as a "cheapie" oil. In a world where computers generate formulas based on cost factors, we can imagine that there is some additional potential usage out there for this oil. Perhaps it does deserve a bit more attention and a nicer nickname than "poor man's Sandalwood". Any suggestions??
The Cookson Team
Cedarwood Oil
We've Got Something Old and Improved!
Oil derived from the many varieties of Cedarwood is one of the major building blocks in the Fragrance industry. Cedarwood comes in a variety of types, is extremely versatile and (dare we say it?) cheap and readily available.
Years ago, varieties produced in North and East Africa and in the northern part of the Indian sub-continent were widely used, but today, the bulk of the trade is centered around three main types:
Chinese: (Copressus Funebris) - a clear pale to straw yellow colored liquid with a rich sweet odor.
Texas: (Juniperus Mexicana) - a pale yellow to pale brown liquid with a clean, sweet balsamic, woody odor.
Virginiana: (Juniperus Virginiana) - a pale yellow to pale brown liquid with a fresh, rich woody odor.
(Note: Of course there is still some Atlas (Moroccan) and Himalayan production, however, they are no longer used here in commercial quantities and have become more "specialty" oriented)
In the US, the oil is steam distilled, mainly from scrap wood collected from saw mills in Texas and the Carolinas. Isolates include Cedrol, Cedryl Acetate, Cedrene, Cedrenol and Methyl Cedryl Ketone. All of these are starting materials for perfumery chemicals.
By far, the largest producer of Cedarwood oil is China with distillation mainly occurring in the Central-Southern area encompassing the provinces of Guizhou, Guangxi, Guangzhou etc. In the last few years a number of multi-national companies have set up factories in China to produce derivatives from Cedarwood and this accounts for the US import tonnage continually decreasing.
U.S. IMPORTS IN METRIC TONS
1994... 558
1995...288
1996...598
1997...458
1998...447
NOTE: VIRTUALLY ALL THE TONNAGE EACH YEAR ORIGINATED IN CHINA
The woody-balsamic odor makes it a favorite for masculine type after shaves and colognes and "out-doorsy" fragrances. However, there is literature out there that expounds on the virtues of Cedarwood oil as having the following qualities (which we cannot let pass without comment)
Insect Repellant (Ok, we'll agree to moths..I just haven't found a Cedarwood candle yet.)
Cellulite Reducer (yeah, sure!)
Urine Stimulator (Great ! Just what we need - more time in the Loo!)
Kidney Toner (Anyone see a flabby one yet?)
Acne Treatment (Manufacturers of OXY-10 must be issuing po's like mad right now) Muscle Relaxant (Aromatherapists - let's have the inquiries!)
Human Scent Mask (oh boy, we think we'll refrain from commenting)
It should also be noted that we are totally in the dark regarding the dosages or "delivery methods" (The Kidney Toner is a total mystery..) needed to utilize these properties to their fullest efficacy. We'll sell you the stuff, you figure it out. The internet is full of good ideas!
But now, seriously, we wish to introduce you to the new "old" boy on the Cedarwood block. This re-entrant to the specialty market in the form of Cedarwood oil Port Orford, is making a comeback. 60 years ago, this essential oil used to be steam distilled from the sawdust and waste of the western White Cedar (Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana) in mills in California and Oregon. By the time Mr. Arctander wrote his comments on the oil in the 1960's, it was all but ignored in the market.
Today, we are happy to report, the oil is being produced from the sawdust and scrap wood dug up from the marshes in Oregon for use in the manufacture of archery arrows, (Oil takes flight and no one has lost an eye or a spotted owl). Currently it is being exported to the far East for use in fragrances. However, it has not caught on quite as quickly in it's homeland. We hope to change that. A few statistics to get you started and perhaps interested in working the perfumer selection back in the direction of using oils, not killing them off.
Appearance: pale yellow to amber colored liquid
Organoleptic: This material has a strong penetrating odor of cedarwood.
Physical Constants:
Optical Rotation: +19.0 to +24.5 deg
Refractive Index at 20 deg C 1.4960 to 1.5120
Specific Gravity at 25 deg C 0.924 to 0.945
Composition by GC Relative Peak Area
| a-pinene | 6.53 +/- 2.94% | Fenchone | 4.67% +/- 0.18% |
| Camphor | 5.94 +/- 1.05% | a-Fenchol | 5.51% +/- 1.06% |
| a-Terpineol | 14.33% +/- 5.80% | a- Amorphene | 1.87% +/- 1.06% |
| a-Muurolene | 4.23% +/- 1.56% | Citronellol | 2.28% +/- 1.75% |
| delta Cadinene | 8.17% +/- 1.75% | Myrtenol | 1.09% +/- 0.09% |
| Tau Cadinol | 3.42% +/- 1.18% | Tau-Muuronol | 2.71% +/- 1.22% |
| Gamma-Cadinol | 5.30% +/- 1.77% |
So, the good ol' Oregon boy is back and we hope you'll use him! Our contact details are right below and we'd love to hear from you.
The Cookson Team
ROSEWOOD OIL
(Example of Perfumer-inian Selection)
Rosewood oil - also known as: Bois de Rose
Steam distilled from the chipped wood of Aniba Rosaeodora a tropical, medium sized, wild growing evergreen from the Amazon basin.
We noticed recently that we complain a lot (well, almost as much as JPS anyway!), about the apparent declining role essential oils/natural products play in fragrance applications. Yet, we too feel justified in our harping on this issue as it seems that every day we are noticing the fall or "slow death" of another natural product in favor of a synthetic alternative in new formulations. Sometimes this is caused by price increase/tightening of supply due to natural or market conditions allowing for synthetics to take over; other times it is caused by origin or import country governmental regulations and more recently, due to ecological pressures. A perfect example encompassing all three of the "diseases" that can kill off an essential oil as a commercially applied natural is Rosewood oil. It is clearly one of the more important essential oils that has fallen victim to all of the above.
Let's take a look at the various factors having led to the decline in usage of Rosewood oil. The first being the introduction of synthetic linalool to replace Rosewood in the cheap fragrance sector in the early 1960's. Steffen Arctander in his important tome (or as one man used to call it "The Essential oils Bible")- "Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Origin" saw the writing on the wall in 1960 stating that: "Bois de Rose today is fighting for survival in strong competition with other essential oils and particularly with synthetic Linalool". For over 30 years, this essential oil has continually declined in usage from a high of approximately 500 tons being exported from several South American producing countries in the 1960's to an estimated 100 tons total production (65 mts total exported) from the last sole producing and exporting country, Brazil.
Some statistics provided by Brazilian exporters are quite illuminating:
15 tons of wood (about 6 adult trees of 20cm diameter) are required to produce one 180kg net drum of oil. Distilleries must now, based on current governmental regulations, plant eight new trees for every one cut down. We are also told that approximately 1000 locals (Indians and Mestizos) living in the Amazon region still make their living from the production of Rosewood oil. This year, it is estimated that 780 trees will be felled to produce the current allowable 130 drums of oil. At this rate, it has been calculated that there are enough trees currently present to last the next 1000 years.
The second factor that is at present extremely important to so many of us, is of course the ecological impact of "tree cutting". Although there is at present adequate raw material to meet industry demand for many more years as seen above, the Brazilian government has made it very prohibitive even for responsible "green" distillers to continue on a long term basis. The major concern at this point for all the distillers/exporters is profitability and their raison d'etre. In 1998 the governmental branch "IBAMA"(Instituto Nacional de Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais) was formed. This brought about the introduction of licensing for distillers and within 1 year, the total number of distilleries reduced to 4. (There were over 40 twenty years ago!)
The cost of licensing for each years? production (currently at $25,000.00 per 300 hectares) and labor costs are on the rise; ecological pressure and governmental restrictions on tree felling continue to become more stringent. Yet, the government itself provides no funding to the producers. Invariably, if this continues, prices will have to go up to cover the costs.
The first and second factors can lead to the third which can be in many cases, the final blow to an essential oil as a widely used commercially viable ingredient : VIOLENT, UNPREDICTABLE PRICE INCREASES. We have already touched on this subject in the past. Over and over again, we have seen natural products suffer an extreme situation (for example Haiti Vetivert oil - remember the Embargo??) only to have prices increase at geometric rates due to lack of availability. This is then inevitably followed by its being written out of new formulas or perhaps partially abandoned on the perfumer's palette and worst of all - finally replaced by a synthetic.
Archeologists and Naturalists know this as Darwinism (ie -once it's gone, it's not coming back!), we call it "Perfumer-inian Selection:" (Ah, we finally tied the title into the story - bet you were wondering when we were going to get to that). Rarely, (although Menthol and d'Limonene seem to be two of the exceptions) do we see a natural be re-introduced on a wide commercial scale after having been largely replaced with another cheaper natural or synthetic. Sad but true.
Currently, Rosewood oil has a place in the high end ingredient roster for top-of-the-line perfumes. However, as we have seen in the past and will in the future, it is profit margins and ease of procurement that influence purchasing and ingredient choices for future creations.
Perhaps we appear to be on a quest to preserve essential oils and usage thereof. Well, you are right ! That's how we make our living! So far, so good with Rosewood - it's still out there and producers seem to be hanging in there despite the plethora of problems they are facing; working with government officials, paying the licensing fees, looking at plantation options and supplying the market what it demands. So far?.
Addendum:
BRAZILIAN EXPORTS OF ROSEWOOD OIL:
AVERAGE NUMBER OF DRUMS PER YEAR:
| 1940'S | 1043 DRUMS PER YEAR |
| 1950'S | 1549 DRUMS PER YEAR |
| 1960'S | 1092 DRUMS PER YEAR |
| 1970'S | 923 DRUMS PER YEAR |
| 1980'S | 492 DRUMS PER YEAR |
| 1990'S | 262 DRUMS PER YEAR |
| 2000'S | 0-100 DRUMS PER YEAR?? |
The Cookson Team
Tagetes Oil
(Not to be confused with Marigold Calendula!)
Marigolds conjure up idyllic images of flower scented fields stretching into a golden-red distance. However, these popular gardening flowers calendula officinalis, are not the same as tagetes, although they are in the same family. Tagette oil is produced from the Tagetes Glandulifera and it is this oil we will focus on for this article. The oil is obtained by steam distillation just after the inflorescence of the crop and has a dark yellow to orange-yellow color.
Tagetes is mainly produced for the world market and usage in South Africa (crop: July/August) and Zimbabwe (crop: May/June , with additional production in Egypt, India and limited quantites in Argentina ( crop: March-May), as well as Nepal and Madagascar.
This oils' herbaceous -green odor with a sweet-fruity undertone is often sought after - and sought after is the operative expression here. As we have mentioned previously, we are definitely not perfumers and rarely make any judgment calls on samples being acceptable; however, as brokers, we can definitely vouch for this essential oil being extremely difficult to "get right" for each buyer/user. This is apparently due to the high and volatile ketone content of the oil.
Often with Tagetes (and recently Davana oil) we are faced with the most disagreeable of rejections for a submitted sample, having to deal with flat out negativity such as:
"No good, rejected, too weedy, oily, too red, not red enough, unusual characteristics, ending with the piece-de- resistance insult: "skunky". We are still not quite sure how you determine an oil is "skunky". Is the same method used by perfumers as the beer connoisseur who determines his beer has been in the sun just a few hours too long?? Whatever it is, brokers like us continue to be puzzled on an ongoing basis that so much can be so wrong with one oil. Perhaps it is because it is by nature a tricky and volatile oil while being used in relatively high-end perfumery where everything has to be "just so" including, in many cases, the color. Whatever the case, it is definitely an oil that causes us (and probably QC's as well) a lot of angst.
Aromatherapists are using and recommending this essential oil for fungal infections, treating corns, callouses and other disorders of the foot as well as against candida. It's also supposed to deter houseflies - (but my fly-swatter is a heck of a lot cheaper and has a finite and visual effect !!)
Market : Currently, South African and Zimbabwean material is in relatively short supply at origin, however, with the new crop around the corner, we should be seeing some relief and pricing, at this time, is stable.
The Cookson Team
Perfume2000
Volume 4, Number 2, February 1999
Geranium oil
Geranium Pelagonium Grave-olens is grown in four main regions: China, Egypt, North Africa and the ex French colonies in the Comores and Reunion Islands of the Indian Ocean. There is a production in a number of other areas but these are on a much smaller scale and do not figure prominently in the global consumption picture. It belongs to the same family as the red flower plant that is seen in pots and flower boxes around the world (but nowhere near as nice as the Swiss Chalets we have on our calendars!!)
The oil is distilled from the above ground parts of the plant, primarily the leaves. With major constituents such as geraniol, linalool and citronellol, it produces a musty rose-type aroma, although, like most essential oils, the oil produced from the same plants can vary from growing region to growing region.
For many decades, the Bourbon-type geranium oil produced in the Indian Ocean was deemed to be the best. Even today, perfumers with experience will wax eloquently on the superiority of this type. The problem is that with accountant-types (somewhat oily, with a distinctly musty and weedy note) now run most companies. From such lofty heights the order was, and remains, "reduce costs!" Egyptian oil was the next choice, but, when short crops moved prices to their own lofty heights, Chinese oil which had been introduced into Yunnan province in the 1940's began to emerge on the market. In most consuming countries, Chinese and Egyptian vie, year-to-year, for the top slot.
Naturally, France is the starting point to look at geranium oil and, although actual distillation is minimal these days, exports from there were 79 tons in 1997 and 86 tons to December 1998 (from imports of 110 tons and 33 tons respectively)
As brokers, we always anxiously await the issuance of the yearly U.S. Government import and export statistics for essential oils because we can then see how much business we missed. After recuperating from the shock and angst, we begin to look more objectively, and apply strategic management principals - such as Kaizen - to dissect figures (we also know Seiri, Seiton, Seiso,Seiketsu and Shitsuke but mainly use these techniques to fix the constaantly blocked sink in our office). It finally becomes very entertaining reading and provides a platform for the impossible sales goals we set for ourselves until the next set of figures are released.
We mention this as export and import statistics figured prominently in our research to prepare ths article on GERANIUM OIL.
As with Bergamot oil discussed in the last issue, we are unable to locate the US growing region of Pelargonium Grave-olens, but this does not stop us from being significant exporters. (See Fig.2)
Fig 1.Major U.S. Supply Sources (in metric tons)
| 1995 | 1996 | 1997 | |
| CHINA | 14 MT | 6 MT | 11 MT |
| EGYPT | 29 MT | 3 MT | 16 MT |
| FRANCE | 54 MT | 14 MT | 27 MT |
| OTHERS | 10 MT | 4 MT | 4 MT |
| TOTAL | 107 MT | 27 MT | 58 MT |
Fig 2. - Major U.S. Export Markets (in metric tons)
| 1995 | 1996 | 1997 | |
| UK | 58 MT | 48 MT | 3 MT |
| LATVIA | 21 MT | 0 MT | 0 MT |
| HKG | 1 MT | 1 MT | 5 MT |
| OTHERS | 9 MT | 10 MT | 12 MT |
| TOTAL | 89 MT | 59 MT | 20 MT |
However, the primary supplying countries are France, China & Egypt (the Comores/Reunion Island have the panache when it comes to Geranium oil, but little or nothing comes directly from these areas to the US (See Fig.1)
Usually, by far our biggest export market for this oil is the UK (Fig.2) but who would have believed that Latvia (yes, it's true - Latvia) would have bought nearly 21 tons of Geranium oil from the USA in 1995?
Since this business never occured before, nor since, we have four possible explanations:
1. The Latvian user bought 21 years worth of stock to ensure a standardized quality.
2. The goods were shipped to Latvia but then secretly transshipped to Lithuania.
3. the goods were misdeclared and were actually Patchouli oil.
4. The US Department of Commerce confused Latvia with Japan.
We would like to take this opportunity, while we have your attention, to get a little more serious and give a quick overview of the recent past and current market. Over the last 12-18 months, pricing for Geranium oil from all origins has been very stable and we have not seen any real lack of supply to aggravate the pricing. However, in just recent weeks, after what we call a long "sleepy period", the market seems to be interested in this oil. This may be due to users finally having to restock after many months of working off existing inventory. This would usually bring about a slight firming tone and as of a few weeks ago (by the time we go to press) we have seen some increases in pricing at origin in Egypt and China.
Until next time, steer clear of the accountants and keep the natural oils flowing into your formulas - even essential oils brokers have to make a living and we depend on you!
The Cookson Team
Bergamot Oil - Fall 1998
When we were first requested to write and article for Perfume 2000, we were dubious. After all, as international brokers of essential oils and aromatic chemicals, we are many steps removed from the marketing of perfumes.
We rarely interact with perfumers, although we are frequently the recipient of perfumer's novel suggestions as to where a particular lot should be sent ! - (usually relayed to us via the purchasing department). Similarly, we are often asked to smell a sample to give an "over-the-phone" evaluation. We gave this up after one buyer said our noses needed amputating, while the next offered to buy the discarded organ because it was so good.
So, perfumers, or perfume marketeers we are not ; on the other hand, trading raw materials globally, we have a unique overview of the supply-side that may be of value to downstream planning.
In recent months, overall demand for essential oils has been very subdued, which in turn has encouraged a downward spiral in prices. This scenario is still with us today. What began as the "Asian (Economic) Flu" has become "Global Pneumonia". Having said this, there are three stand-out exceptions in the fragrance area: Lavender, Patchouli and Bergamot oil.
Today, we are concentrating on:
Bergamot oil
Identification : According to some literature, there is historical data that supports the theory that the Bergamot is a hybrid cross between bitter orange "bigarade" - C. aurantium LIN (we have also found it described by some as a "small acidic orange") and true lime - C. aurantifolia CHRISM. Most often it is called Citrus bergamia - named after the region in Italy where it was first successfully cultivated. Considered to be in the Rutacaea family. According to Arctander, the trees are grafted on stubs of bitter orange trees, approximately 4.5 meters high with smooth oval leaves.
International ID :
CoE N. 137
ECOIN/CAS: 8007-75-8
RIFM 11:1031 (1973)
FEMA 2153 (GRAS)
FDA 182.20 - GRAS-Natural Flavor Extractive
Extraction: Cold pressed (from the peels of the fruit of the bergamot tree - which are still hand-picked from the trees and processed in both Ivory Coast and Italy using pelatrice extractors.
Yield: Approximately 0.5% depending on the source and production procedure
Main Areas of Cultivation:
Italy, -150 kilometer narrow strip of coast along the Mediterranean sea. The total area of production approx. 1300 hectares, mainly in Reggio Calabria.
Total Annual Production - Italy
| 1993-1994 | 85-90 mt |
| 1994-1995 | 75-80 mt |
| 1995-1996 | 85-90 mt |
| 1996-1997 | 90-95 mt |
| 1997-1998 | 80-85 mt |
| 1998-1999 est | 75-80 mt |
Some readers might remember the incredible price increases during 1990-1991. For comparison, during this crop, only 35 mt of oil were produced in Italy, a significant drop from the previous year where approximately 130 mt were produced. It is believed that due to the tremendous price increase during this time period, many users switched to synthetic equivalents. At present, we are in a firm market and this may result in (sadly) even further re-formulations.
** See our projections for 1999.
Ivory Coast - Approximately the same total area of cultivation, however, several production areas are scattered throughout the country with varying soil and climate conditions.
| Total Annual Exports - Ivory Coast | |
| 1994 | 65 MT |
| 1995 | 75 MT |
| 1996 | 50 MT |
| 1997 | 40 MT |
Minor Areas of Cultivation: South America : The commercial production and exports from these areas are minimal.
Crop Times: Italy - December - March
Ivory Coast - October/November
USA - Year round (see below)
There were attempts to introduce Bergamot to the USA (Florida, Louisiana and California) dating back to 1815 but these were unsuccessful and abandoned. However, this has not stopped the U.S. being the largest exporter of Bergamot oil as can be seen from the following USDA statistics:
|
1994 1995 1996 1997 |
112 mt 151 mt 144 mt 154 mt |
Could this oil be grown in the lab?? Certainly there is apparently a good market for "stretched" Bergamot oil. For comparison, the following are the total annual US imports
| 1994 | 38 mt |
| 1995 | 33 mt |
| 1996 | 37 mt |
| 1997 | 37 mt |
Description: The oil is a greenish /yellow liquid with fresh, clear, lively odor, somewhat fruity and sweet. It is known to have approximately 300 components. The main being linalool and linalyl acetate the levels of which vary depending on the time of processing.
One may note from the above statistics that the oil extracted from young fruit generally has a higher linalool content and that the linalyl acetate increases the same time the crop advances. It is interesting to note that the linalool content in Ivory Coast Bergamot oil is higher than Italian origin which may be due to the tropical climate (hot and humid), however, both origins have similar linalyl acetate contents.
Physio Chemical Properties
| ITALY | IVORY COAST | |
| Ref. Index at 20 deg C. | 1.464-1.480 | 1.4620-1.4640 |
| Opt. Rot at 20 deg C | +8 to +30 | +16 to +33 |
| Spec. Gravity at 20 C | 0.876-0.884 | 0.8790-0.8829 |
| Acid Number | up to 2 | above 1.24 |
| Ester Number | 86-129 | 120.1 to 143.8 |
| CD Number | 0.800 to 1.200 | 0.58 to 0.67 |
| Bergaptene | 0.279 | 0.203-0.366 |
| Flash Point | 58 deg C | 58 deg C |
Usage: The aroma-therapy industry is currently interested in the following applications for the essential oil:
Analgesic, antidepressant, antispasmodic, digestive, diuretic, laxative, stimulant. Furthermore it is understood to be a valuable treatment for cystitis and urethritis. The antiseptic qualities of Bergamot oil are valuable in the treatment of acne, oily skin, and skin infections.
Fragrances: as a top note for perfumery, it blends well with citrus oils, lavender, neroli, jasmine, geranium, cypress, juniper and is often used in toiletries and colognes.
Flavor: Confections, tea.
Safety Information: Certain furocoumarins (including Bergaptene) are photo toxic to human skin and causes sensitivity when exposed to sunlight.
1998-1999 Production Projections: From various exporters, traders and stockists, we have been advised that this year's crop will likely again fail to meet demand. Origin export prices have remained at high levels, despite the new crop having been exported from Ivory Coast and exports of Italian oil imminent. Both Ivory Coast and Italy lack any carry-over stocks from the last crop and we will likely see firm prices throughout 1999 based on world-wide demand remaining unchanged.
The Cookson Team